Return to the basis of language preservation:
family, community-based intergenerational transmission of mother tongue
Zhang Xueqian
Abstract In this paper, to save the language of loss (RLS) of the theory, try to point out that mother-tongue education as the school language revival Native communities is to strengthen the core of sustainable mechanisms for survival. Therefore, the activities of all save the mother tongue, and finally got to focus on preservation and maintenance of mother tongue in the family, the community's use. This paper argues that bottom-up grassroots movement, emphasizing self- control the use of private language, self-empowerment approach to maintain their mother tongue. paper proposed the establishment of family, community nurtured native environment specific recommendations: , native talent apprenticeship training, community language program group, kindergarten and other community language.
Key words: family, community, mother tongue education, language revitalization
1. Introduction
school and family community language and culture convergence is generally not the experience of disadvantaged groups. a poem written by Apache children of disadvantaged groups to express exclusion of ethnic language and culture school sad helplessness (Cazden & Dickenson 1981: 457-8):
you ever since the school you feel sad?
I have, because I learned a lot from school, then,
but that is not my language.
In fact, the phenomenon described by the poem is also applicable to Taiwan language education. Taiwan's past, as the local native language education, barriers to learning Mandarin, so only use Mandarin introduced to suppress native monolingual mother tongue education policy. The results of various ethnic groups of students learn Mandarin, but the loss of their mother tongue. [1] In recent years, the loss of native ethnic groups in Taiwan growing, local mother-tongue education and they will become the main language revival movement demands. the right to mother tongue education and the demands of the educational authorities did not immediately get a response. The initial policy response is to abolish the past to suppress the local language commands; then, only symbolic teaching activities in the 『』 native mother-tongue education in the placement of time (less than ten minutes a week); Finally, after constant fighting the Ministry of Education decided to nine local languages as usual 『』 will select courses ( A WEEK language classes).
great loss when the language has become endangered language, mother tongue is not in the family community use, school is often regarded as the main place for mother tongue teaching. The question is: whether the mother-tongue education in schools alone can save the loss of native languages? mother tongue education are important, David. Christo (2001:254) to consider 『strengthen endangered languages in the educational system, accounting for the weight, the revival of endangered languages』 movement can make some progress. However, he also also warned that mother tongue education in schools is not the panacea to all of the responsibility to schools, does not help.
language revitalization movement is multi-faceted work, the complexity and difficulties. However, the difficulties in dealing with complex issues , the common mistakes is to simplify it, trying to find a cure once and for all. At present the rehabilitation of the gradual emergence of language to focus entirely on the trend of mother-tongue education schools. This revival of the school as a panacea for the mother tongue very dangerous myth, because it is very likely mistaken us enough to save the mother-tongue education in schools lost their mother tongue, forget the mother tongue of other, more basic work of revival.
In fact, the family and community language preservation is fundamental. 『 indigenous language revitalization and development of four-year draft plan to correct that 』indigenous language families and tribes of the importance of indigenous language revitalization and development in the family of the consultation meeting (Taitung County Government, 2001/4/4) 『ethnic language teaching is not made only in the schools only, the study of ethnic language families and communities from the beginning and re-education through schools, called on parents in the family and the community as much as possible to teach their children that promote indigenous languages of the ethnic tribes of great importance to the community, combined with local elites, the church people and the strength of all sectors to create a good environment for learning and use of indigenous languages. 』The purpose of this language in the provision of family and tribe of the family of the theoretical basis, and proposed the establishment of family, community mother tongue influence of the environment specific recommendations.
2. 『』 to save the language of the theory of the loss of
Fishman (1991) through in-depth analysis of the language describing the world's major sports, the language proposed by the loss of 『』 to save the theory (Reversing Language Shift, RLS). [ ,],[will save the loss of language is divided into eight stages. generation imbalance is proportional to the severity and its progression.
as shown in Table I is mainly the theory of RLS reached double-dual statement made by society and the community beyond these two parts. [3] to the fifth stage is the eighth stage of the pursuit of the establishment of two-word community. this period emphasized: self-reliance self-help, to do pre-linguistic and cultural heritage and intergenerational ties (Fishman 1991:396). Minorities are usually powerless potential, and very lack of resources. So for minorities, the independent self-help when the loss of language, language preservation and stable society the only reliable method (Fishman 1991:396).
awareness rebuilt, go to the eighth stage . Section 8 is the stage of endangered species, only a few elders speak their mother tongue. At this stage the focus is to rebuild native language specification. [4] is mainly the work of linguistics, such as grammar, dictionary, voice, meaning, Idiom of the order. records the work of the verge of extinction a very important language, Linguistic Society of America had issued a America 1996: 181-182). but if you want to go beyond this stage, linguists alone is not enough. because if there is no mobilization, organization, and this stage may only increase the results of several linguistic papers only.
seventh stage the language of middle-aged and elderly there are native speakers, but they have been over the age of childbearing, but also does not teach children to speak their mother. because there are some native speakers, sometimes people mistake this stage language preservation no problem. In fact, these native speakers may be just the last native speaker, if not pay attention you do not have a generation, will be endangered. this stage need to link language and the general families, daily life and the child's social process, specific practices can refer to the Maori and Hawaiians, disorder classification table 』(Fishman 1991:395)
1. a higher level of education, work, mass media and high-level operation of the government;
2. local / regional mass media and local government public services;
3. including the ethnic and other groups of local / regional workplace;
4b. part of the ethnic mother tongue education. curriculum design and personnel arrangements under the control of other ethnic groups;
4a. full use of mother tongue in school. This group of personnel arrangement, curriculum design and ownership;
II. reached double-word community (diglossia) beyond the two-word after the RLS
5. culture and young adults to read and write ability of schools and do not replace compulsory;
6. there from generation to generation and the population is concentrated household / family / neighborhood: Native heritage foundation;
7. There is also the older generation use the native community cultural exchanges;
8. rebuild native, adults re-learn their mother tongue (the mother tongue as a second language learning);
I. (inspired sense of after) made by the community want to achieve double-RLS
sixth stage, including home - family - neighborhood - community enhancement, it is the pursuit of the core work of language and culture from generation to generation, but also a necessary condition for the subsequent stages. At this stage, parents continue to teach language to future generations, the family - neighborhood - community activity is still a mother tongue. this stage is particularly important because children's basic social process is completed here, the relationship between child and mother tongue is set up here. Fishman (1991) that if there is no other stage of development and Sixth stage of linking the inheritance of language and culture without any real meaning. Therefore, all save the mother tongue of the activities, and finally got to focus on preservation and maintenance of mother tongue in the home - family - neighborhood - community use (Slate 1994:4) . In short, any measure RLS should see if it is able to reach and strengthen intergenerational ties of language and culture to be assessed.
fifth stage is the official language of socialization (language socialization) activities. purpose literacy training for adults and young and learning the official language use. this stage did not replace the establishment of compulsory education in the schools.
fourth stage there are two types of schools .4 a to replace the compulsory education schools, local on curriculum design and staff arrangements to provide partial ownership .4 b is the mother tongue of the public school population. However, curriculum design and personnel arrangements, both of which are controlled by other ethnic groups. For disadvantaged groups, this two types The school is not easy to win. Even if win, and usually too late, too little, can not guarantee the success of RLS. The third stage consists of other ethnic groups of the population and local / regional workplaces. This phase involves the social status , social mobility and the functioning of modern society, is difficult to influence and control. may be the practice in the workplace, the service at the department to establish their mother tongue. The second stage is the language used in the local mass media and local government public services authority. The first stage of language in government offices, workplaces, mass media and education departments. If this did not affect the two stages to the sixth stage, only symbolic significance.
3. mother-tongue education in schools Although the mother-tongue education in schools
limitations of language revival is somewhat helpful, though, as sociolinguists Fishman (1985:373) pointed out: mother-tongue education in schools will be discussed in three restrictions: 1) is not the most critical factor in language preservation; 2) mother-tongue education in schools too little too late; 3) can not function outside the reach of communication.
3.1 is not a language school Save the most critical factor
theory known by the RLS mother-tongue education in schools (phase IV) is not the key to save the language of loss, families, communities, heritage language (sixth stage) is the most important. Figure a said that the school is the role of mother tongue and contribution of scalable type (Fishman 1991:372), the main function of the horizontal expansion of the language; but family and community to teach the mother tongue is vertical from generation to generation, and this is the mother tongue Lai by virtue of sustainable living. In other words, mother tongue education in schools must be affected families and communities to reach the vertical use of language from generation to generation. Hinton pointed out (1999:75):
place of learning, but also in order to achieve the purpose of language revitalization, then have the mother tongue out of the classroom, the home to become the language of communication between the community h. This means that the school language courses must be part of community activities, Schools themselves can not just design, implementation and no active community involvement. One of the important factors that children learned the language from the school back to family, community, and then to the next generation.
Chart. native vertical legend vs. the level of expansion
|
mother | Pragmatic language functions on behalf of the expansion
| to generation | Biography On the contrary, if the school did not affect the mother-tongue education, families, communities, language use, the loss can not be reached to save the mother tongue. Ireland is an example. Ireland back in 1920 on the implementation of mother tongue education. but only to schools to promote the Irish language, there is no impact to the community, family language use, and thus failed to save the language loss (Zhang Xueqian 1996:288). Macnamara (1971:73) to personal experience to say the Irish language is to be the case as the school language:
, I only know that bow does not. a grocery store, I asked the woman in the end my sister is talking about. my sister explained to me that the Irish language education in schools is to get us both in a variety of occasions mother tongue. she finished, I asked her very naive: the Irish language is the language you use everyday? to ensure the sustainable development of disadvantaged groups. Fishman (1991:91) claim: too dependent on the media, schools and the efforts of government agencies.
3.2 mother-tongue education in schools too little too late
weak language in education in general ignored, function not only limited, there is an obvious lack of teaching time. disadvantaged in education, literacy, the function of language is neither the Enlightenment nor the medium of language, even as a school subject are highly questionable (Tsao 1995). Therefore, the study and preservation of mother tongue, the school is often too late, too little, can not guarantee the success of RLS (Fishman 1991:379). New Zealand's Maori education is a typical example. New Zealand's elementary and junior high, four to five hours a week Maori courses. But on the Maori did not help much. There are many native speakers will say the original mother-tongue teaching sessions as seriously inadequate. The current regulations also at least two a week from the originally reduced to a class. If you rely on schools to revive the mother-tongue lessons are a bit nonsense. According to a survey of Indigenous Peoples, the current indigenous 35% of the indigenous areas lack of pre-school institutions, other areas with pre-school institutions have not implemented universal education in indigenous languages. The current schools are not treated equally native language, mother tongue education, position, function and significance should not be Some attention (Chen Shu 2001). In these circumstances, it is clear that mother tongue education in schools alone can not do to save the genocide in the Taiwanese language.
3.3 lack of communication outside of school functions
Another disadvantage of mother tongue education in schools where the communication can not be achieved outside the native function (extracommunicational functions). ethnic language, something more than simple communication tool, language is the emotional sustenance, identity tokens, cultural representation and social ties . Unfortunately, the emotional, identity, a symbol for social contact, the mother-tongue education in schools only play a limited role. Fishman (1991:373-374) believed that only the rich in emotion, friendly family - neighborhood and community identity and the experience of social contact, the mother tongue can begin transmission between generations of experience. If the lack of such experience, even with school education can not be passed along.
4. return to mother tongue education, family and community
theoretical point of view from the RLS , the sixth phase, the family - community enhancement, is the key to save the language of loss. However, this does not mean that mother-tongue education in schools is not important, only that family, the community is more important to the native tradition of basic institutions. RLS theory that other stages and the sixth stage of development should be connected to the transmission of language and culture make a substantial contribution. The following, section 4.1 discussed in the mother tongue sections were made for the family, mother-tongue education in the community and examples of specific methods.
4.1 native revival of self control: Native outside the community by the policy is not power, but the language of community members to develop their loyalty by the bottom-up grass-roots movement. Ruiz (1990:18) the so-called disadvantaged communities for the resources used to increase the recovery base. Ruiz (1990) have investigated the late 19th century German-speaking communities in the Midwest and in southwestern Mexico, the language of the community preservation situation. He found that although the German community of bilingual education in public, but can not save the language, and Mexican communities Instead of bilingual education in their mother tongue more brutal oppression, discrimination, however, survival is still in their mother tongue. Ruiz that the key lies in whether the privatization. German-speaking communities because of over-reliance on mother tongue education in schools, do not attach importance to maintaining the authority of traditional language and culture , when suddenly lose the support of external institutions, when their native language will recover. Mexican communities on the contrary, because there is no reason to believe that the support of forces outside the community, long-term preservation of organs m the church, family and neighborhood br> Spanish is the only realistic hope. the use of mother tongue in the family's native language can be said to DIY renaissance without Jiashoutaren, also without any cost, just need to practice on the language of loyalty and determination. the use of mother tongue is also important to family education. children through these social Situation and caregiver interaction, a how the study could save the weak language in the family of reference. These studies mainly through the records of the parents of a child's language that there is community understanding of children's bilingual language development (Romaine 1995, Harding & Riley 1986, Huang Xuan Fan 1995). Romaine (1995:183-205) to foster parents of bilingual children as a strategy used by the classification criteria, to distinguish six types, of which ) mother tongue, their ability in some native language.
community: the mother tongue of one of the parents is the strong language of the community.
strategy: a child born, the parents of their children to speak their mother tongue.
mother tongue is society is not used, then the family may be the only place to save the mother tongue. Family bilingualism research has indicated that parents of different native language, the principle is that parents and their children to speak their mother tongue, children Zeyi language parents speak with them to answer.
Huang says (1995:248) has studied the type of bilingual families in Taiwan, that : The only place the next generation learn their mother tongue. and their own traditional culture of ethnic fragmentation (Cunningham-Andersson & Andersson 1999:34).
implementation of answer (Romaine 1995:186). sociolinguistic studies have shown that lack of social support in the case of vulnerable children in language acquisition is difficult to take the initiative to capacity. However, should parents and children as possible to speak the mother tongue, even if they Answer to strong language. grounds that children learn through passive listening skills, and knowledge of the language can easily change the passive to active, for example, comes home to visit relatives or experience that only a single native language speakers.
2. vulnerable families language / disadvantaged parents say the mother tongue of the next generation, children in contact with strong language outside the home.
If parents are concerned that children do not get enough of the language input, you can choose the Andersson & Andersson 1999:37). This method is mainly by the use of language areas: parents are the weak language in the family and children speak only their mother tongue to create a family environment; children from the neighborhood, game or educational channels such as learning sites strong language. Simply put, that is, at home, mother tongue, said outside the strong language. This approach is consistent with sociolinguistic view of language preservation, such as Fishman (1967) that the phenomenon of double-words of their language minority groups to maintain the necessary conditions for the disadvantaged low-level language can at least close areas to be preserved.
4.2.2 to create a family environment
disadvantaged native-language parents must help children to create a language environment, a rich language experience. If invited to speak the same language of children and adults to family visits, regular and monolingual native speakers to meet, to say that traveling in an area native. You can also listen to songs by, songs, jokes, proverbs, or reading books, videos, TV, satellite TV, to expand language experience of children. In creating native environment, need to pay attention to inspired rather than endure pain; the challenge is to stimulate rather than compulsory drudgery make a significant contribution to language development. They put forward the following approach:
. in a variety of different situations and the children speak, so that the mother tongue in a rich environment for children to grow up;
. to listen to children speak;
. Tracking child development;
. read to your child: often read to children to listen to stimulate children's language development;
. teach children to read the weak language: listen to tapes to read, causing reading motivation;
. looking for weakness of language information: such as story books, songs, video games, television and other educational programs.
In addition, Canada's First Nations (First Nations) to promote language use on the family the following recommendations (Kavanagh 1999:40):
. In dinner or some regular activities to use their mother tongue. Be patient, do not easily give up!
. learn your child is school and words;
. children in their mother tongue and speak the words you will have taught him;
. use of time and parents and get along with other native speakers;
. to encourage children and grandparents or any other native speakers to native speakers;
. request the elders and young people to use their mother tongue, Young parents speak;
. the mother tongue into the family games and entertainment;
. sustained participation of mother-tongue education curriculum.
4.3 build native
addition to the family of the community outside the mother tongue Community is key to the continuation of their mother tongue. will be extended to the native language of the community can increase the personal use of the mother tongue of communication networks, to enhance the opportunity and ability to use language to strengthen the neighborhood, but also understand the community's ethnic language and culture, it is important mother-tongue education and life education. This section describes several methods to establish their mother tongue influence of the environment.
4.3.1 build influence of environmental
native communities in Canada First Nation (First Nations) sets out a number of extended community native method used, it is also useful (Kavanagh 1999:40):
. the production of posters, distribute pamphlets to promote the mother tongue, such as percent of the traffic signals and street signs;
. use the mother tongue to play games such as bingo;
. release native communication;
. organizations that weekend or the whole mother-tongue language courses weekend (immersion weekend) ;
. the erection of the traditional names of the signs;
. in a public dinner and other social communication sites to use their mother tongue;
. to support the use of mother tongue in the government agencies, such as meetings, document exchanges;
. encourage young people and elders often meet.
4.3.2 build children's language environment
disadvantaged groups often leave their homes due to economic factors to the city hard, in the absence of native ethnic communities under difficult heritage to the next generation. In this case, the disadvantaged groups in addition to the (Cunningham-Andersson & Andersson 1999). they said that the family can share the same native language heritage experience, participation in the activities of the mother tongue (eg: school holidays, children's playgroup, nursery, picnic, hiking). these groups need to always keep in touch, meet at least once a week, every two hours. to establish children's play classes as follows:
1. to find that the same language family or related group;
2. met to discuss funding sources, location, appointment of teachers;
3. arrangement design of children's activities;
4. a group of at least ten children;
5. group meeting shall be the mother tongue;
6. Parents and children need to play together, talk to stimulate the weak language of children.
or normal winter and summer holiday camps for their mother tongue influence of (immersion camp) is also a good community language activities. Northern California Ka Luke family (Karuk tribe) had influence of mother tongue in 1992 for business activities (Sims 1998:102-103). The camp's activities are mainly language and cultural activities, the purpose is to gather together people of different generations (including children, parents, and language fluency elders), to create a completely native influence of the environment. native language of the camp activities include teaching activities, traditional arts, cultural and recreational activities (Zhang Qiqi, Xu Tianming 2000:94). mother-tongue influence of business use of interactive teaching strategies. Karoo gram language courses in addition to vocabulary and phrases introduced on, he questions and orders to encourage listening, observation and follow the teacher as action. native language of business to provide a meaningful context, which surround the game, eating, drinking, singing, dancing, storytelling, short performance and process drama activities to enhance children's listening and practice using the language of opportunity. [5] operating on spoken language, children can continue to hear the elders, staff use their mother tongue, Ka Luke written language labels and notices are provide additional language enhancements. native fluency in the elderly is smooth camp the central figure, they provide advisory services and assistance to language the mother tongue for a variety of activities (Sims 1998:103). The most important is that the elders mother tongue in teaching children and support adult learning to play an active role in their mother tongue, so the language can be set up to maintain the required power generation continuation of the connection between (Sims 1998; Fishman 1991).
4.3.3 to apprenticeship training a new generation of native speakers
Ka Luke ethnic communities of learning another language is worth saving plan is apprenticeship. endangered languages, usually only a small number of elderly people will say their mother tongue. Mentoring can be used to develop new native speakers, to establish contact with different generations. Ka Luke family in 1993, the first mentoring group established by the apprenticeship language learning programs (Master-Apprentice Language Learning Program) sponsored by the support. the plan first in 1992 California Native seminar is presented, Hinton (1994:231) on language learning apprenticeship program has the following description:
Gold elders and young people to provide mentoring group composed of living allowance, so that they can not work a few months, but also the social impact from the English, complete infiltration in the traditional language and cultural environment. In the full language of the influence of the environment It is estimated about three to four months can significantly improve the language proficiency, in particular, already have some passive language skills of people. formal way of learning the language, through and local speakers to speak, ...
